Nisula-Pepeshapissinikan - Images on Stone

Environment & History

In the Heart of the Boreal Forest

The Pepeshapissinikan site is located on a high cliff wall alongside a remote lake. Teeming with fish such as trout and pike, this lake is mainly surrounded by coniferous trees (balsam fir, spruce, juniper and Eastern white cedar), with a few species of deciduous trees like white birch. Sphagnum moss and lichen cover the surrounding ground. In the summer, small fruits such as blueberries abound. The boreal forest is home to many animal species, including the black bear, moose, beaver, fox, wolf, porcupine and hare.

The climate is temperate with an average of 15°C. But from summer to winter, temperatures vary greatly by more or less 50°C. Precipitation can reach up to 1000 mm/year.

A series of 14 images showing the surrounding forest, the lake, a few tracks left in the snow by animals, and some of the North Shore plant life

Place Name

Pepeshapissinikan is an Innu word that means “the rock formation with paintings.” Its origin is an age-old word: Pepéchapissinagan. It was recorded as early as 1731 on the maps of Father Laure, a Jesuit missionary.

Nisula: This is the family name of the person who first discovered the Pepeshapissinikan archaeological site: Anne Nisula
Pepeshapissinikan: This word in the Innu language refers to a rock marked with paintings

The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World

The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.
The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World
The Innu obtained most of their traditional staple foods from hunting, fishing and gathering. They were constantly on the move, seeking resources where available within their territory. This nation was divided into several bands often associated with drainage basins. During the summer, the Innu gathered on the coastline or the banks of the main lakes and waterways to harvest Nature's bounties. These seasonal gatherings also provided opportunities to forge marital bonds. In the fall, the Innu left and moved inland. Hunting large game, such as caribou, was their main subsistence activity. Innu’s beliefs and rituals shaped every aspect of their day-to-day lives. Hunting conveyed the intimate relationship between humans and the animal world. Each animal species was under the protection and control of a higher power, a “Master of Animals.” Invisible powers visited hunters mostly in their dreams. In times of need, the Innu also called upon some powerful beings living on the land, such as the Memekueshu at Pepeshapissinikan.

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A Surprising Discovery

The site was discovered accidentally in 1985 by Anne Nisula during a fishing expedition. She noted several paintings on the face of a tall rock formation that were oddly similar to those found in her native Finland.
A Surprising Discovery
The site was discovered accidentally in 1985 by Anne Nisula during a fishing expedition. She noted several paintings on the face of a tall rock formation that were oddly similar to those found in her native Finland.
A Surprising Discovery
The site was discovered accidentally in 1985 by Anne Nisula during a fishing expedition. She noted several paintings on the face of a tall rock formation that were oddly similar to those found in her native Finland.
A Surprising Discovery
The site was discovered accidentally in 1985 by Anne Nisula during a fishing expedition. She noted several paintings on the face of a tall rock formation that were oddly similar to those found in her native Finland.

Mode plein écran Toile précédente, Galerie 2 Toile suivante, Galerie 2

Image of Father Laure's map showing the hydrographic network and the Innu place names of the Domaine du roy — The places mapped by the Father Laure

Father Pierre-Michel Laure was the first to indicate the site’s Innu name on the maps of the Domaine du roy that he drafted in the northeastern part of New France, between 1731 and 1733. Father Laure also added the French translation of the place name “We can see naturally painted figures in the rock” on the maps.

The Pepeshapissinikan Cliff

Like many other sites across the Canadian Shield, Pepeshapissinikan is an open-air rock art site on the exposed face of a cliff beside a body of water. A monochromatic scene painted in red covers more than 14 m² of the rock surface. Divided into four panels and created in several stages, the artwork illustrates various figures surrounded by several more or less complex linear motifs. The marbled texture and crevices of the rock clearly contribute to the overall imagery of the scene. The motifs and their meanings still elude us.

The Cliff is 42 Meters

Présentation de la falaise où se trouve les représentations. Des points indquent les différentes zones où apparaissent les représentations

Various Characters and Other Rock Art Paintings

Photograph of a Memekueshu with a triangular head — Memekueshu

This singular figure painted at the very centre of the rock art scene is likely a Memekueshu. Depicted with a long, asexual body with large feet and a triangular head, it appears to be walking towards a crevice to enter the rock where it dwells. According to Innu oral tradition, Memekueshu has a slender head to easily penetrate crevices in the rock. According to Algonquian beliefs, Memekueshu sometimes mingles with humans to transmit medicinal knowledge to them. However, this creature also likes to play tricks on humans before fleeing in a stone canoe! Memekueshuat are often described as small hairy beings. Elders also say that some rock art was painted by Memekueshuat with their own blood.

Photograph of an Inverted Figure — Inverted Figure

In this scene, an inverted anthropomorphic figure (head down) was depicted above the Memekueshu. This representation may be interpreted as a deceased person, a person diving in the water after an overly prolonged vision quest, a spirit entering the rock through a crevice or a medicine man (a healer, diviner and interceder between humans and spirits) penetrating the rock to receive Memekueshuat’s medicines and teachings. An inverted figure may also represent the act of flying.

Photograph of a Figure with Horns — Figures with Horns

The spiritual dimension of these images is highlighted by two figures with horns. In Algonquian beliefs, horns represent spiritual power. A figure with horns may be identified as a “Manitou,” a great spirit. Algonquian peoples called upon these powerful entities for help. This figure may also be a medicine man. The figure with horns appears to hold in its left hand a cross-shaped object. Based on Algonquian imagery, it may represent a rattle, a drumstick or a medicine rite object. Figures with horns are featured on many rock art sites across the Canadian Shield, from Quebec to Saskatchewan.

Photograph of a figure appearing to hold a medicine bag in its left hand — Medicine Man

This figure is carrying an oblong object in its left hand. It may represent a medicine man holding a medicine bag. Medicine bags were made with otter, marten, muskrat or bird skin. They held plants, minerals, stones and animal parts like bones that were used to perform healing rites or ensure successful hunts. Medicine men may have received some of the objects from Manitous.

Photograph featuring a series of vertical lines — Tally Marks

On the bottom right of Panel 2 is a series of parallel vertical lines. Sometimes painted oblique, they are frequently found in Quebec and Ontario rock art. They are believed to represent a tally system. The vertical lines may also represent a canoe crew. However, such is not the case at Pepeshapissinikan because there are no images of watercrafts (usually represented by a slightly curved horizontal line under vertical streaks).

Photograph of a wavy pattern likely representing a snake — Zoomorphic Figure (Snake)

An undulating motif shown on the lower left section of Panel 2 alludes to a snake. This motif appears at several rock art sites and is generally related with the Underworld. The most important being of this world is Mishipeshu, a powerful Manitou feared by all because of the waves and whirlpools that it causes on lakes. Mishipeshu and snakes are the enemies of Thunderbirds that rule the Upperworld.

Technique and Conservation

Site Preservation and Protection

This heritage site is constantly exposed to changing climatic conditions. Preventative conservation studies are carried out on a regular basis to better preserve it. Through careful and systematic observation of the rock, minor cleaning work can be carried out on the painted surfaces to remove lichen growth. These measures have been implemented to protect the site from any natural or human disturbance.

Scientific Studies

View of a fingerprint featured on the Pepeshapissinikan cliff — Pictograph Painting Technique

All the motifs were painted using hematite, a mineral substance rich in iron oxide that was crushed and mixed with water or any other binding substance (e.g., animal fat). The “artists” used their fingers, mainly their index, as the easiest tool to apply the paint.

Picture of a sample being collected for laboratory analysis — Scientific Documentation

The scientific study of the site is based on the documentation of the material, visual and acoustic features of the site, as well as on samples taken for laboratory analysis. The interpretation of the graphic content is based on a host of relevant archeological, anthropological, ethnohistorical and artistic data.

Picture showing a sample being handled for carbon-14 analysis — Radiocarbon Dating

Carbon-14 dating on two samples from Panel II helped to determine that Pepeshapissinikan could be between 2000 and 2200 years old.

A Mysterious Underwater Slab of Rock...

Long ago, a chunk of rock broke loose from the lower part of Panel III and sank with its paintings to the bottom of the lake. The 1.25-ton chunk now lies under 12 metres of water. In 1992, divers were unable to see any pictographs, because the rock rests on its painted surface. This slab of rock conceals a page in the history of the site that remains unknown. It may hide images never before seen that are likely to change our understanding of the Pepeshapissinikan site and even of rock art in Quebec.

PEPESHAPISSINIKAN

Environment & History

In the Heart of the Boreal Forest

Place Name

The Innu, Nomadism and the Animal World

A Ceremony for the Spirits of Pepeshapissinikan

A Surprising Discovery

The places mapped by the Father Laure

The Pepeshapissinikan Cliff

The Rock

Panel 1

Panel 2

Panel 3

Panel 4

Panel 3 (Fragment)

Various Characters and Other Rock Art Paintings

Memekueshu

Inverted Figure

Figures with Horns

Medicine Man

Tally Marks

Zoomorphic Figure (Snake)

The Sacred Knowledge of the Innu

Technique and Conservation

Site Preservation and Protection

Scientific Studies

Pictograph Painting Technique

Scientific Documentation

Radiocarbon Dating

A Mysterious Underwater Slab of Rock...

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